Levine, K. J., Muenchen, R. A., &Brooks, A. M. (2010). Measuring transformational and charismatic leadership: Why isn& #39;t charisma measured?.

The literature on both the Transformational and Charismatic theories of leadership espouse the importance of communication as part of the leadership phenomena. However, the existing measurement scales (The Multidimensional Leadership Questionnaire, the Conger–Kanungo Charisma Scale, the Followership Scale and the Romance of Leadership Scale) that are used to assess both the Transformational and Charismatic Theories fail to adequately address and measure the communication behaviors that are believed to be a part of charisma. Four-hundred twenty-two respondents completed the standard measurement scales and were asked to define “charisma” and to discuss the communication behaviors of a charismatic leader. Using text analysis and correlations, no relationships were found between the existing scales and the definitions and behaviors associated with charisma. This manu suggests the creation of a new leadership measurement that includes charismatic communication behaviors to assist in a proper understanding of these two leadership theories.

 

 

Levine, K. J., Muenchen, R. A., & Brooks, A. M. (2010). Measuring transformational and charismatic leadership: Why isn’t charisma measured?. Communication Monographs, 77(4), 576-591.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2010.499368

 


 

Duncko, R., Cornwell, B., Cui, L., Merikangas, K. R., &Grillon, C. (2007). Acute exposure to stress improves performance in trace eyeblink conditioning and spatial learning tasks in healthy men.

The present study investigated the effects of acute stress exposure on learning performance in humans using analogs of twoparadigms frequently used in animals. Healthy male participants were exposed to the cold pressor test (CPT) procedure, i.e.,insertion of the dominant hand into ice water for 60 sec. Following the CPT or the control procedure, participants completeda trace eyeblink conditioning task followed by a virtual navigation Morris water task (VNMWT). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical(HPA) axis and sympathetic autonomic system (SAS) activity were assessed by measuring salivary cortisol, heart rate, and skinconductance at selected timepoints. Results revealed positive effects of stress on performance in both tasks. The stress groupshowed significantly more conditioned blinks than the control group during acquisition of trace eyeblink conditioning. Thestress group also performed significantly better in the VNMWT than the control group, with the former showing significantlyfewer failures to locate the hidden platform in the allotted time and smaller heading errors than the latter. Regression analysesrevealed positive relationships between HPA axis and SAS activity during stress and eyeblink conditioning performance. Ourresults directly extend findings from animal studies and suggest potential physiological mechanisms underlying stress andlearning.

 

 

 

Tsai, J. L., Knutson, B., & Fung, H. H. (2006). Cultural variation in affect valuation. Journal of personality and social psychology, 90(2), 288.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.288

 



Dhabhar, F. S., &Mcewen, B. S. (1997). Acute stress enhances while chronic stress suppresses cell-mediated immunityin vivo: A potential role for leukocyte trafficking.


 Delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions are antigen-specific, cell-mediated immune responses which, depending on the antigen involved, mediate beneficial (resistance to viruses, bacteria, fungi, and certain tumors) or harmful (allergic dermatitis, autoimmunity) aspects of immune function. We have shown that acute stress administered immediately before antigenic challenge results in a significant enhancement of a skin DTH response in rats. A stress-induced trafficking or redeployment of leukocytes to the skin may be one of the factors mediating this immunoenhancement. Here we investigate the effects of varying the duration, intensity, and chronicity of stress on the DTH response and on changes in blood leukocyte distribution and glucocorticoid levels. Acute stress administered for 2 h prior to antigenic challenge, significantly enhanced the DTH response. Increasing the duration of stress from 2 h to 5 h produced the same magnitude enhancement in cutaneous DTH. Moreover, increasing the intensity of acute stress produced a significantly larger enhancement of the DTH response which was accompanied by increasing magnitudes of leukocyte redeployment. In contrast, chronic stress suppressed the DTH response when it was administered for 3 weeks before sensitization and either discontinued upon sensitization, or continued an additional week until challenge, or extended for one week after challenge. The stress-induced redeployment of peripheral blood lymphocytes was attenuated with increasing exposure to chronic stress and correlated with attenuated glucocorticoid responsivity. These results suggest that stress-induced alterations in lymphocyte redeployment may play an important role in mediating the bi-directional effects of acute versus chronic stress on cell-mediated immunityin vivo.

 

 

 

Dhabhar, F. S., & Mcewen, B. S. (1997). Acute stress enhances while chronic stress suppresses cell-mediated immunityin vivo: A potential role for leukocyte trafficking. Brain, behavior, and immunity, 11(4), 286-306.

https://doi.org/10.1006/brbi.1997.0508

 



 

Epel, E. S., Blackburn, E. H., Lin, J., Dhabhar, F. S., Adler, N. E., Morrow, J. D., &Cawthon, R. M. (2004). Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress.

 

Numerous studies demonstrate links between chronic stress and indices of poor health, including risk factors for cardiovascular disease and poorer immune function. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms of how stress gets “under the skin” remain elusive. We investigated the hypothesis that stress impacts health by modulating the rate of cellular aging. Here we provide evidence that psychological stress— both perceived stress and chronicity of stress—is significantly associated with higher oxidative stress, lower telomerase activity, and shorter telomere length, which are known determinants of cell senescence and longevity, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy premenopausal women. Women with the highest levels of perceived stress have telomeres shorter on average by the equivalent of at least one decade of additional aging compared to low stress women. These findings have implications for understanding how, at the cellular level, stress may promote earlier onset of age-related diseases.

 

 

Epel, E. S., Blackburn, E. H., Lin, J., Dhabhar, F. S., Adler, N. E., Morrow, J. D., & Cawthon, R. M. (2004). Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(49), 17312-17315.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0407162101

 

Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions?. Review of general psychology, 2(3), 300-319.

 

This article opens by noting that positive emotions do not fit existing models of emotions. Consequently, a new model is advanced to describe the form and function of a subset of positive emotions, including joy, interest, contentment, and love. This new model posits that these positive emotions serve to broaden an individual’s momentary thought–action repertoire, which in turn has the effect of building that individual’s physical, intellectual, and social resources. Empirical evidence to support this broaden-and-build model of positive emotions is reviewed, and implications for emotion regulation and health promotion are discussed.

 

 

Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions?. Review of general psychology, 2(3), 300-319.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300

 

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Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences.

Theory indicates that resilient individuals “bounce back” from stressful experiences quickly and effectively. Few studies, however, have provided empirical evidence for this theory. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (B. L. Fredrickson, 1998, 2001) is used as a framework for understanding psychological resilience. The authors used a multimethod approach in 3 studies to predict that resilient people use positive emotions to rebound from, and find positive meaning in, stressful encounters. Mediational analyses revealed that the experience of positive emotions contributed, in part, to participants’ abilities to achieve efficient emotion regulation, demonstrated by accelerated cardiovascular recovery from negative emotional arousal (Studies 1 and 2) and by finding positive meaning in negative circumstances (Study 3). Implications for research on resilience and positive emotions are discussed.

 

 

Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of personality and social psychology, 86(2), 320.

 

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Bakker, A. B. (2011). An evidence-based model of work engagement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 265-269.

 

 Employees who are engaged in their work are fully connected with their work roles. They are bursting with energy, dedicated to their work, and immersed in their work activities. This article presents an overview of the concept of work engagement. I discuss the antecedents and consequences of engagement. The review shows that job and personal resources are the main predictors of engagement. These resources gain their salience in the context of high job demands. Engaged workers are more open to new information, more productive, and more willing to go the extra mile. Moreover, engaged workers proactively change their work environment in order to stay engaged. The findings of previous studies are integrated in an overall model that can be used to develop work engagement and advance job performance in today’s workplace.

 

 

Bakker, A. B. (2011). An evidence-based model of work engagement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 265-269.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411414534

 

Mischel, W., Ebbesen, E. B., &Raskoff Zeiss, A. (1972). Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification.

Describes 3 experiments with a total of 92 3-5 yr. olds. Exp. I compared the effects of external and cognitive distraction from reward objects on the length of time which Ss waited for a preferred delayed reward before forfeiting it for a less preferred immediate one. In accord with predictions from an extension of frustrative nonreward theory, Ss waited much longer for a preferred reward when they were distracted from the rewards. Exp. II demonstrated that only certain cognitive events (thinking “fun things”) served as effective ideational distractors. Thinking “sad thoughts” produced short delay times, as did thinking about the rewards themselves. In Exp. III the delayed rewards were not physically available for direct attention during the delay period, and Ss’ cognitive attention was manipulated by prior instructions. While Ss waited, cognitions about the rewards significantly reduced, rather than enhanced, the length of their delay of gratification. Overall, attentional and cognitive mechanisms which enhanced the salience of rewards shortened the length of voluntary delay, while distractions from the rewards, overtly or cognitively, facilitated delay. Results permit a reinterpretation of basic mechanisms in voluntary delay of gratification and self-control.

 

 

Mischel, W., Ebbesen, E. B., & Raskoff Zeiss, A. (1972). Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21(2), 204-218.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0032198

Van Gelder, J. L., Hershfield, H. E., &Nordgren, L. F. (2013). Vividness of the future self predicts delinquency. Psychological science, 24(6), 974-980.

The tendency to live in the here and now, and the failure to think through the delayed consequences of behavior, is one of the strongest individual-level correlates of delinquency. We tested the hypothesis that this correlation results from a limited ability to imagine one’s self in the future, which leads to opting for immediate gratification. Strengthening the vividness of the future self should therefore reduce involvement in delinquency. We tested and found support for this hypothesis in two studies. In Study 1, compared with participants in a control condition, those who wrote a letter to their future self were less inclined to make delinquent choices. In Study 2, participants who interacted with a realistic digital version of their future, age-progressed self in a virtual environment were less likely than control participants to cheat on a subsequent task.

 

 

Van Gelder, J. L., Hershfield, H. E., & Nordgren, L. F. (2013). Vividness of the future self predicts delinquency. Psychological science, 24(6), 974-980.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612465197

 

Just, M. A., Keller, T. A., &Cynkar, J. (2008). A decrease in brain activation associated with driving when listening to someone speak. Brain research, 1205, 70-80.

Behavioral studies have shown that engaging in a secondary task, such as talking on a cellular telephone, disrupts driving performance. This study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the impact of concurrent auditory language comprehension on the brain activity associated with a simulated driving task. Participants steered a vehicle along a curving virtual road, either undisturbed or while listening to spoken sentences that they judged as true or false. The dual-task condition produced a significant deterioration in driving accuracy caused by the processing of the auditory sentences. At the same time, the parietal lobe activation associated with spatial processing in the undisturbed driving task decreased by 37% when participants concurrently listened to sentences. The findings show that language comprehension performed concurrently with driving draws mental resources away from the driving and produces deterioration in driving performance, even when it does not require holding or dialing a phone.

 

 

Just, M. A., Keller, T. A., & Cynkar, J. (2008). A decrease in brain activation associated with driving when listening to someone speak. Brain research, 1205, 70-80.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2007.12.075